mughal empire labor systems

In general, in return for their services they were allowed to hold small pieces of land tax free (the tax which was usually borne by the village as a whole), and/or to claim modest shares in the grain harvest, given to them by each peasant at harvest time. I have used the text transcribed in Nagari script (with word separation), published by the same authority in Amritsar in 1951. Geared sugar rolling mills first appeared in Mughal India, using the principle of rollers as well as worm gearing, by the 17th century. This was largely true of Mughal India as well. The economy of the Mughal Empire was very large and prosperous. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu temples and hired more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler. Likewise, the Mughals opened and promoted India's foreign trade. for this article. 58. 393433Google Scholar. Some said rose, from whose petals were distilled the precious ittar, others, the lotus, glory of every Indian village. (Karachi, 1970), II, pp. Fryer, John, A New Account of East India and Persia, Being Nine Years Travels, 16721681, 3 vols (London, 19091915), I, p. 341Google Scholar. [44], Indian shipbuilding, particularly in Bengal, was advanced compared to European shipbuilding at the time, with Indians selling ships to European firms. Also, unlike European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect taxes. [50] By the late 18th century, the British displaced the Mughal ruling class in Bengal. In some crafts women worked directly for wages too, and here again they could be given heavy work to do. Painted portrait of Vasco de Gama dressed in a long black coat and carrying a sword and wooden staff. (London, 1929)Google Scholar. India was at the center of a global market for goods in which Muslims, from many backgrounds and regions, were the principal dealers. Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks, and opium; Bengal accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia, for example, including more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks. Bbur assigned the unconquered territories to his nobles and led an expedition himself against the rana in person. Webcor. It is obvious that the caste system would not have established itself and functioned so successfully had the lower castes and the outcastes to a large extent not accepted it as representing a divinely ordained institution. 14. In contrast to ethnicity, race is often an externally imposed category. Ravidas owned that members of his family still went around Banaras removing dead cattle.Footnote 55 He is explicit in pronouncing his indifference to caste and claimed that belonging to caste and being out-caste matters not for God's love, the path being open equally to all, Brahman, Bais (Vaishya), Sud (Shudra) and Khatri (Kshatriya), as well as Dom, Chandar (Chandal, outcaste), and Malechh (Muslims).Footnote 56. (Delhi, 1978), p. 690. With expanded connections to the wider world came also new ideologies and technologies to challenge and enrich the imperial edifice. Economic Systems. I wanted to use this article as a source for my essay. [50][pageneeded] Its handloom industry flourished under royal warrants, making the region a hub of the worldwide muslin trade, which peaked in the 17th and 18th centuries. Project Engineer. 727 and 734; Amin Qazwini, Badshahnama (c.1638) (transcript of Rampur MS, at Department of History Library, Aligarh), pp. That success belonged to his grandson, who managed to expand Mughal territories and establish a highly efficient governance structure. 509510Google Scholar. Chand Bahar, Tek, Bahar-i Ajam (compiled 1739) (Lucknow, 1916)Google Scholar, s.v. The civil administration was organised in a hierarchical manner on the basis of merit, with promotions based on performance. Miniature in the Leningrad Branch of the Institute of the Peoples of Asia. Bburs brief tenure in Hindustan, spent in wars and in his preoccupation with northwest and Central Asia, did not give him enough time to consolidate fully his conquests in India. 22. The paper titled "Mughal Hegemony and the Emergence of South Asia as a "Region" for Regional Order-building" was published in the European Journal of International Relations, Vol. 10. Reproduced from Habib, Agrarian System. [47] Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles. Dumont, Louis, Homo Hierarchicus: The Caste System and its Implications (London, 1972), p. 257Google Scholar; I owe this reference to Professor Ramesh Rawat. Muslims across the Indian Ocean benefitted by having a common language (Arabic), a common set of ethical codes, and a shared tradition of commercial practices. Direct link to m9803038's post When was this article pub, Posted a year ago. Painters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, and carpenters are explicitly classed among Shudras. This chapter covers the history of taxation from the Mughal dynastic era (1526-1858) in India. In 1759, the Persians even briefly occupied the capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock Throne. Direct link to Kat's post How does the Mughal empir, Posted 10 months ago. Like other empires, the Mughal Empire had lots of different communities. Here, as in corn milling, heavy work could be assigned to women without any qualms. [20] That could be comparable to advance part of Europe. While slavery also existed, it was limited largely to household servants. 32. In domestic service, where this could conceivably happen, the presence of male and female slaves introduced a complicating factor in the wage market that was not present in non-domestic lines of work. Kulliyat-i Jafar Zatalli, Naeem Ahamad (ed.) Bengali farmers rapidly learned techniques of mulberry cultivation and sericulture, establishing Bengal Subah as a major silk-producing region of the world. The official chronicler tells us that the Chandals, who were considered outcastes, and described as thieves and highway robbers, began to be employed by many nobles as watchmen after such a display of imperial patronage for them.Footnote 43 Abu'l-Fazl also informs us that sweepers, who were called kannas or menials, were redesignated by Akbar as halalkhor (earners of legitimate wages),Footnote 44 clearly in order to eliminate a pejorative characterization. Usually wages were paid in cash or kind on a daily basis,Footnote 15 or partly daily and partly on a seasonal basis. Initially, they were content to be just like a mansabdar, working within the Mughal bureaucracy and acknowledging the emperor's authoritywhile making money, of course. 102104; [39], Bengal accounted for more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks imported by the Dutch from Asia,[35] Bengali silk and cotton textiles were exported in large quantities to Europe, Indonesia, and Japan,[5]:202 and Bengali muslin textiles from Dhaka were sold in Central Asia, where they were known as "Dhaka textiles". Contests over the throne created particular challenges for the state, eating up all of the empire's budget with war costs. Abu'l-Fazl, Akbarnama (Calcutta, 1984). Processed products included cotton textiles, yarns, thread, silk, jute products, metalware, and foods such as sugar, oils and butter. Figure 1 Painting by Tulsi, with Akbar's figure by Madho the Younger (c.1595). The Rajputs under Rana Sanga of Mewar threatened to revive their power in northern India. "useRatesEcommerce": false The caste system is not easy to define, since it has enormous complexities and has undergone variations across regions and over time. Some, like Abu'l-Fazl, did not like to scold them directly;Footnote 26 another noble was such a hard taskmaster that he even made his torchbearers and musicians, normally working at night, work as building labourers so that they might not remain idle in daytime.Footnote 27 There was, however, some disapproval of physical ill-treatment. Through carefully calculated maneuverings, they went province by province and made nice with different local factions. By the early seventeenth century, Mughals governed one of the world's most populous and affluent empires in world history. The British East India Company later duplicated the flushed deck and hull designs of Bengal rice ships in the 1760s, leading to significant improvements in seaworthiness and navigation for European ships during the Industrial Revolution. This meant that they were quite weak compared to the power of the emperor. However, the information we do have, in Persian (then the official language), regional, or local languages, and in European languages (from missionaries, merchants, and travellers), enables us to explore the major forms of labour that prevailed in India during the late sixteenth century and the entire seventeenth century, and to trace the perceptions of the social status of the labourer that were held by the superior classes and by the labourers themselves. It is true that some employers paid their servants partly in kind (old clothing), and delayed salary payments were common; but the basic rates seem always to have been fixed in money.Footnote 4 This is borne out by all the incidental references to wages paid, whether in Indian records or in the accounts of European travellers and documents of the factories of the European East India Companies in the seventeenth century.Footnote 5 Money wage payments can thus be regarded as largely the rule in seventeenth-century Indian towns and markets, and in imperial and aristocratic establishments. In his account of Hinduism in the A'in-i Akbari, Abu'l-Fazl reproduces the classical conceptions of the caste hierarchy.Footnote 35 We have here the four orders, Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras, and the occupations assigned to them. In censuses of certain towns of the region of Marwar (western Rajasthan) given in the singularly interesting statistical work, Munhta Nainsi's Marwar ra Parganan ri Vigat, compiled in 1664, the total number of houses is recorded. Habib, , Agrarian System of Mughal India, p. 142Google Scholar. 9, 8386, 223224, 310. 487488. Yet this wealth made the region a target for competitive rivals. As in much else, Sher Shah Suri during his brief reign . Project: Google's Downtown West Campus. Reproduced from Habib, Agrarian System. what was the political system of this empire? Dalla Valle, Pietro, Travels in India, E. Grey (transl.) It is tempting to suppose that among both the labouring poor themselves and the elite, a breach in the faith in the old established order was being brought about largely owing to changes in the position of the artisans caused by the development of money relations and the broader market framework. One can see from a Mughal painting by the famous artist Bichitr (fl.1630) how they must have been sung out to the poorest of the poor (Figure 3). Invoking traditional Iranian wisdom, Abu'l-Fazl states that mankind is divisible into four groups: first, warriors, who are like fire; second, artisans and merchants, who correspond to air; third, men of letters, such as philosophers, physicians, accountants, architects, and astronomers, who together resemble water; and fourth, peasants and cultivators, who are comparable to earth.Footnote 36 In this arrangement artisans and merchants are given precedence not only over peasants but even over men of letters. Bernier, , Travels in the Mogul Empire, pp. On the other hand, a low-caste man such as a kahar (palanquin carrier) could never rise in status whatever profession he actually pursued. But Birbal said, The cotton boll. A notable representative of Brahmanical orthodoxy, Tulsidas (fl.1570), author of a very popular version of the religious epic Ramcharitmanas, noted as an astonishing phenomenon of his day that low-caste people such as oilmen, potters, untouchables (svapachas), fishermen, watchmen, and distillers simply shave their heads and turn into mendicants, at the loss of their wife or household goods.Footnote 48 Their one act of defiance led to others. These were workshops run by rich merchants and tradesmen, who pay the workmen rather high wages (Bernier).Footnote 12 In 1620 the English East India Company's factors set up a temporary Cor Conna (karkhana) at Patna employing nearly 100 persons to wind silk for them.Footnote 13 It was considered unethical to take work from a labourer and not pay the agreed wage for it.Footnote 14 But the practice of holding back wages was apparently quite common. He died near Lahore in December 1530. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders grew, the state feared those elites, some of whom could now maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000. [36] Indian cotton textiles were the most important manufactured goods in world trade in the 18th century, consumed across the world from the Americas to Japan. Painting of the Mughal emperor seated on a grand, golden throne adorned with flowers and peacocks. [22][23], According to Moosvi, Mughal India had a per-capita income, in terms of wheat, 1.24% higher in the late 16th century than British India did in the early 20th century. This resulted in lower silver coin prices for Indian textiles, giving them a price advantage in global markets. Render date: 2023-03-02T09:27:28.930Z 91Google Scholar, 96. [48] The Mughals introduced agrarian reforms, including the modern Bengali calendar. 35. 3) Jah, Posted a month ago. In this context, the exaltation of manual labour by the famous Mughal Emperor Akbar (reigned 15561605), both in words and action, seems notably singular. [10], The Mughals adopted and standardised the rupee (rupiya, or silver) and dam (copper) currencies introduced by Sur Emperor Sher Shah Suri during his brief rule. It was otherwise among the Muslims however: here occupations actually undertaken determined status. What groups or classes of people were the most important supporters of Mughal rule? 137, 141144Google Scholar, for this entire paragraph. Used with permission. Agrestic slavery, however, existed in Malabar (Kerala) and Bihar around 1800, and is described in Buchanan's detailed local surveys.Footnote 17 But outside of these areas Irfan Habib has been able to cite only one instance, from Gujarat for 1637, where a peasant claimed to possess a slave, presumably for work in the field.Footnote 18. Muslims were already living in India when the Mughals first arrived. Birbal said, Your Majesty, from the cotton boll comes the fine fabric prized by merchants across the seas that has made your empire famous throughout the world. This is due partly to the fact that in many respects the evidence is scanty when compared with what is available for Europe and China in the same period. [2] The gross domestic product (GDP) of the Mughal Empire in 1600 was estimated at 22% of the world economy, the second largest in the world, behind only Ming China but larger than Europe. Whitney Howarth is an associate professor of history at Plymouth State University where she specializes in modern world history and the history of India. (London, 1926), p. 28CrossRefGoogle Scholar. By 1700, the GDP of Mughal India had risen to 24% of the world economy, the largest in the world, larger than both Qing China and Western Europe. 155-163) Be . 45. Mansabdars were similar to European nobles, but also differed in key respects. The three types of ignoble profession are those that (1) are against the interest of the people, like hoarding; (2) are contrary to sobriety, such as buffoonery; and (3) are detestable, such as the professions of barber, tanner, and sweeper. The translation of the passage in The empire was the midway point between eastern and western Asia, making them a prime . Rav Das who used to remove dead cattle, abandoned worldly affairs. Became distinguished, and in the company of the saints obtained a sight of God. [24] This income, however, would have to be revised downwards if manufactured goods, like clothing, would be considered. These workshops are described in detail in the A'in-i Akbari and by Francois Bernier (in India, 16581668).Footnote 6 The A'in-i Akbari furnishes us with details of wage rates for different kinds of work, invariably in terms of money, and on a daily basis. Reproduced from Habib. [28] Bengal was later described as the Paradise of Nations by Mughal emperors. In the city, the monopoly of resources by the ruling class necessarily depressed wages through the market mechanism itself. What seems most striking is the defiant assertion of their status in relation to God and society made on behalf of peasants and workers in northern India in certain religious cults in the fifteenth to the seventeenth centuries. Skilled artisans and labourers worked in imperial and aristocratic establishments, called karkhanas (workshops), which produced goods of various sorts for use in the employers households, as well as for use as gifts. 11. The diffusion of the spinning wheel, and the incorporation of the worm gear and crank handle into the roller cotton gin led to greatly expanded Indian cotton textile production during the Mughal era. Abu'l-Fazl, A'in Akbari, II, p. 229Google Scholar. In India, however, there was an additional factor, namely the caste system. Other than black pepper, India didn't grow many spices of its own, but it was the world's trans-shipment center for spices. These preachers thus asserted that for the very reason of their lowly position as artisans and workers, they were the more favoured by God. (Calcutta, 18671877), I, pp. If you could ask the author for one more piece of information about the Mughal Empirethat isnt included in this articlewhat would it be. Habib, Irfan, The Agrarian System of Mughal India (15561707), 2nd edn (New Delhi, 1999)Google Scholar, ch. Clay was prepared by women while the men potters worked on the wheel. During the period we are dealing with, India was known all over the world for its manufactures, which it exported notably to western Asia and Europe. [34], The worm gear roller cotton gin, which was invented in India during the early Delhi Sultanate era of the 13th14th centuries, came into use in the Mughal Empire sometime around the 16th century,[31] and is still used in India through to the present day. Though there is no explicit rejection of the caste system or untouchability in any statement attributed to Akbar,Footnote 42 one finds him appointing the untouchable Chandals as members of his palace guard and giving to their leader the fairly high title of rai (literally chief, prince). The imperial centre, in fact, came to be controlled by the regions. Elsewhere, Abu'l-Fazl ranks all professions into just two classes, placing that of warriors again at the higher level, and that of peasants and other professionals next. But he died two years later, so it wasn't really Babur's leadership that sustained his dynasty. Habib, , Agrarian System of Mughal India, pp. Abu'l-Fazl, , A'in Akbari, I, p. 170Google Scholar. Muslims were already living in India when the Mughals first arrived. Rural wage rates were depressed owing to the caste. What they did challenge was the status assigned to the artisans and workers on the basis of the pervading concept of caste and social hierarchy. Bbur then continued his campaigns to subjugate the Rajputs of Chanderi. 5860Google Scholar. They tended to form part of a religious movement, now often called Popular Monotheism, which, rejecting both Hinduism and Islam, India's two major religions, preached an unalloyed faith in one God, abjuring all ritual and the constraints of the caste system. He treated all his subjects alike and opened a large number of schools and colleges for Muslims as well as for Hindus throughout his empire. There are many scholarly studies on taxation during Mughal rule over three centuries from which a summary of impositions and conclusions therefrom may be drawn. Of the four premier artisanal religious leaders mentioned in these verses, we have compositions included in two massive collections compiled in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, namely the Guru Granth Sahib, the Sikh scripture, and the Sarbangi of Rajabdas, of the Dadupanthi sect.Footnote 51 Owing to their early date, they enable us to capture the original compositions as they circulated in their earliest form among the common people in the various spoken languages, including Marathi, Awadhi, Braj, and Panjabi. 31. [44] He also assesses ship repairing as very advanced in Bengal. From 1556 to 1707, during the heyday of its fabulous wealth and glory, the Mughal Empire was a fairly efficient and centralized organization, with a vast complex of personnel, money, and information dedicated to the service of the emperor and his nobility. The first farman, dated 7 April 1561, assigns Ramdas the revenues of a village near Agra in lieu of his salary. ), 2 vols (Jodhpur, 19681969)Google Scholar. The Dadupanthis were followers of Dadu (c.1575), a cotton carder, and one of the notable monotheistic teachers of the time. The perfume of your fame far exceeds the scent of roses and jasmine. [27] The Mughal government funded the building of irrigation systems across the empire, which produced much higher crop yields and increased the net revenue base, leading to increased agricultural production. The Company then began to expand beyond Bengal. Sain, barber and village drudge, well known in every house. Bbur and Humyn struggled against heavy odds to create the Mughal domain, whereas Akbar, besides consolidating and expanding its frontiers, provided the theoretical framework for a truly Indian state. (Cuttack, 1922), p. 201Google Scholar. Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile production, created great wealth. [29] While the average peasant across the world was only skilled in growing very few crops, the average Indian peasant was skilled in growing a wide variety of food and non-food crops, increasing their productivity. In return, they got land rights, payment, and status. 389406Google Scholar. And trade was really spiced up by the nutmeg, mace, cloves, cardamom and cinnamon coming out of Indonesia's "spice islands". Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings. They assisted their artisanal menfolk in nearly all the work done at home. He replaced the tribute system, previously common in India and used by Tokugawa Japan at the time, with a monetary tax system based on a uniform currency. This hypothesis can, however, be juxtaposed with another hypothesis, equally speculative. 228229Google Scholar. It is not easy to set boundaries between the social ideas of the higher or elite classes and those of the lower orders. The Mughals were a Muslim dynasty who ruled over a majority Hindu population. For example, Aurangzeb killed his brother Dara Shikoh for the throne. Not only did the aristocracy maintain a considerable number of servants, the employment of domestic servants by middle-class groups was also quite extensive. That policy created enough social stability to ensure healthy business, investment, and trade. 12. Figure 3 Painting by Bichitr (c.1635).Victoria and Albert Museum, I.M.27-1925. karkhana. Foster, W., A Supplementary Calendar of Documents in the India Office Relating to India or to the Home Affairs of the East India Company 16001640 (London, 1928), p. 66Google Scholar; The middling professions are divided into (1) essential, such as agriculture; (2) those that one can live without, such as cloth dyeing; (3) basic (basit) crafts, such as carpentry and iron or metal work; and (4) secondary (murakkab) crafts, such as weighing and tailoring.Footnote 37. 7. Ram Mukhlis, Anand, Safarnama-i Mukhlis, S. Azhar Ali (ed.) [17][18] This, however, is disputed by Parthasarathi and Sivramkrishna. Hostname: page-component-7fc98996b9-g9qcd But we might be able to trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the general costs of maintaining a medieval war state in modern times. Farid Bhakkari, Shaikh, Zakhirat-ul Khawanin, Syed Moinul Haq (ed.) They were represented by something they called the East India Company, a British private joint stock trading company that rose to prominence in the northeast province of Bengal in the mid-eighteenth century. For a detailed account and full references see Moosvi, Economy of the Mughal Empire, pp. Fukazawa, Hiroshi, The Medieval Deccan (Delhi, 1991), pp. [1] Mughal India's economy has been described as a form of proto-industrialization, like that of 18th-century Western Europe prior to the Industrial Revolution. The collapse of major empires could lead European powers to establish hierarchical labor systems in which peasants were bound to provide labor Following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Russia developed a system of serfdom to maintain the wealth of the small nobility and monarchy; serfs, or peasants, were forced to work on large estates Used with permission. According to the article, what was the role of the Mughal Empire in the global economy? As far as we can judge, the division of labour by gender was practically all pervasive, even within the same occupation (women were spinners, men weavers; men were bricklayers, women brick carriers).Footnote 33 There appears to have been little competition between the two sexes for the same kind of job. The Mughal empire was a centralized Islamic state. Used with permission. Idem, Akbarnama, III, p. 604; idem, A'in Akbari, I, p. 189. In his verses the satirist Jafar Zatalli (1710) suggested that a small household could still comprise the master, his wife, a male slave, and a slave girl.Footnote 30, The practice of forced labour (begar) was generally considered unethical, though it was widely prevalent in relation to certain occasional tasks, such as baggage conveyance, imposed on specific lowly rural castes or communities. [21] Due to the scarcity of data, however, more research is needed before drawing any conclusion. Was very large and prosperous the Leningrad Branch of the emperor 1916 ) Google Scholar for. To do India & # x27 ; s Downtown West Campus depressed owing the. Prices for Indian textiles, giving them a price advantage in global markets the! Investment, and one of the Mughal Empire had lots of different communities were living! P. 229Google Scholar Mughals first arrived dead cattle, abandoned worldly affairs: &. Article pub, Posted a year ago out How to manage your cookie settings if could!, Pietro, Travels in the Mogul Empire, pp would be considered of de... Empire was the midway point between eastern and western Asia, making them a price in! Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock throne in Bengal the modern Bengali calendar with Akbar 's figure by the. The power of the passage in the Empire was the midway point between eastern western. ] Bengal was later described as the Paradise of Nations by Mughal.., making them a price advantage in global markets in corn milling, heavy work be... Determined status so it was otherwise among the muslims however: here occupations undertaken. That could be assigned to women without any qualms what groups or classes of people were the most important of..., E. Grey ( transl. later, so it was limited largely to household servants, claiming the gem-encrusted... World 's most populous and affluent empires in world history and the of. 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For one more piece of information about the Mughal Empire had lots different... [ 21 ] Due to the caste cattle, abandoned worldly affairs or find out How to manage cookie... Those of the notable monotheistic teachers of the Mughal ruling class necessarily depressed wages through the mechanism!, and status a target for competitive rivals wider world came also new and... And sericulture, establishing Bengal Subah as a source for my essay hypothesis, equally.... Caste System Travels in the company of the Mughal emperor seated on seasonal... Bigotry aside, Aurangzeb killed his brother Dara Shikoh for the throne the perfume your! Extensive commercial activity, both in trade and textile production, created great wealth hierarchical on! Work to do to household servants the saints obtained a sight of.... [ 21 ] Due to the article, what was the midway point between and! 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Covers the history of taxation from the Mughal Empire, pp lower silver coin prices for Indian textiles giving!, with Akbar 's figure by Madho the Younger ( c.1595 ) isnt. Again they could be comparable to advance part of Europe only held the right to taxes... The basis of merit, with promotions based on performance famed gem-encrusted Peacock throne fukazawa, Hiroshi, the even! The imperial edifice usually wages were paid in cash or kind on a seasonal basis staff. By Mughal emperors elite classes and those of the time where she in! Became distinguished, and in the Leningrad Branch of the emperor II, pp maintain a considerable of. Find out How to manage your cookie settings Mewar threatened to revive their power in northern.! Akbar 's figure by Madho the Younger ( c.1595 ) ( Karachi, 1970 ), published by the seventeenth... Similar to European nobles, mansabdars did not own the land but only held the right to collect.., it was otherwise among the muslims however: here occupations actually undertaken determined status the social ideas the... To remove dead cattle, abandoned worldly affairs capital in Delhi, claiming the famed gem-encrusted Peacock throne direct to! To m9803038 's post How does the Mughal ruling class in Bengal in nearly all the work done at.. Zakhirat-Ul Khawanin, Syed Moinul Haq ( ed., but also differed in key respects market. Rajputs of Chanderi by Bichitr ( c.1635 ).Victoria and Albert Museum, I.M.27-1925 fame far exceeds the of! 18671877 ), published by the regions given heavy work could be assigned to without. Authority in Amritsar in 1951 1926 ), p. 170Google Scholar the Empire... Budget with war costs the men potters worked on the basis of merit, with promotions based on..
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